Book 2 / Chapter 8
Paragraph 1 - The Doctrine of the Mean
Explanation - Part By Part
"There are three kinds of disposition, then, two of them vices, involving excess and deficiency respectively, and one a virtue, viz. the mean, and all are in a sense opposed to all;"
Aristotle is saying that there are three main ways a person's character or behavior can be shaped. Two of them are faulty or harmful, which he calls vices. These result from either too much (excess) or too little (deficiency) of something. The third type, which is the desirable state, is virtue, found in the mean—a balanced middle ground between the two extremes. All three—excess, deficiency, and the mean—are in opposition to one another in a way, because they represent fundamentally different ways of acting or feeling.
"for the extreme states are contrary both to the intermediate state and to each other, and the intermediate to the extremes; as the equal is greater relatively to the less, less relatively to the greater, so the middle states are excessive relatively to the deficiencies, deficient relatively to the excesses, both in passions and in actions."
Aristotle is explaining the idea that virtue, which is the intermediate or balanced state, is positioned between two extremes—one of excess and one of deficiency. These extremes are vices, and they oppose both the virtue and each other.
To help clarify, think of this like a scale: if "equal" is the midpoint, it's greater when compared to something less but also lesser when compared to something greater. Similarly, the intermediate or virtuous state (the mean) might feel excessive when compared to a deficiency (too little of something) but feel deficient when compared to an excess (too much of something). This applies to both emotions ("passions") and actions.
For example, courage (the virtue) is the middle ground between two extremes—cowardice (deficiency of courage) and recklessness (excess of courage). Courage might seem overly bold to a coward but too cautious to a reckless person. This dynamic is true for many virtues, where the intermediate position is defined in relation to the two opposing extremes.
"For the brave man appears rash relatively to the coward, and cowardly relatively to the rash man; and similarly the temperate man appears self-indulgent relatively to the insensible man, insensible relatively to the self-indulgent, and the liberal man prodigal relatively to the mean man, mean relatively to the prodigal."
Aristotle is explaining that the person who possesses a virtue or "the mean" (the balanced state) might be perceived differently depending on the perspective of those who occupy the extremes. For example:
- A brave person, who finds the balance between fear and confidence, may seem reckless or "rash" to someone overly fearful (a coward). However, that same brave person may seem timid or "cowardly" in the eyes of someone who is overly bold (rash).
- Similarly, a temperate person, who exercises self-control, might seem indulgent to someone excessively restrained (insensible to pleasure). Meanwhile, to a person who overindulges in pleasure (self-indulgent), the temperate person might seem unfeeling or insensible.
- The liberal (generous) person, who strikes the right balance in giving, may appear wasteful or "prodigal" to someone who hoards wealth (stingy). Yet, to a wasteful person, the liberal person might seem excessively cautious or "mean" (ungenerous).
The core idea is that virtue exists as a middle ground between extremes, but those at the extremes often see it through the lens of their own bias, interpreting balance as closer to the opposite extreme.
"Hence also the people at the extremes push the intermediate man each over to the other, and the brave man is called rash by the coward, cowardly by the rash man, and correspondingly in the other cases."
Aristotle is pointing out how people who are at the extremes (those who either have excess or deficiency in a particular quality) often misjudge those who embody the balanced, virtuous "mean." Essentially, people tend to see others through the lens of their own extremes. For example, a coward—who lacks courage—might view a brave person as being too reckless or "rash," because the brave person's actions seem excessive compared to their own timid disposition. On the flip side, someone who is overly rash and reckless might see that same brave person as too cautious or even cowardly because the brave person's restraint contrasts with their own tendency to go too far.
This dynamic isn’t limited to courage. It applies across all virtues. People at the extremes push their labeling and judgment onto others, viewing those in the middle as being closer to the opposite extreme than they really are. Aristotle highlights this to show how finding the virtuous mean can often be misunderstood or mischaracterized by others, especially those who are distant from it.