Book 3 / Chapter 8
Paragraph 5 - The Nature of Courage and the Role of Experience in War
Explanation - Part By Part
"Experience with regard to particular facts is also thought to be courage; this is indeed the reason why Socrates thought courage was knowledge."
Aristotle is discussing the idea that being experienced in specific situations can sometimes be mistaken for courage. He mentions that Socrates believed courage to be a form of knowledge, likely because understanding what to do in certain circumstances can make someone appear brave. For instance, if someone knows how to handle themselves in dangerous situations due to prior experience, their confidence and competence might seem like bravery, even though it could just be the result of knowing what to expect and how to act. However, Aristotle is setting the stage to argue that true courage is something deeper than just having experience or knowledge—it’s rooted in one’s character and motivations.
"Other people exhibit this quality in other dangers, and professional soldiers exhibit it in the dangers of war; for there seem to be many empty alarms in war, of which these have had the most comprehensive experience; therefore they seem brave, because the others do not know the nature of the facts."
Here, Aristotle is saying that when it comes to courage, professional soldiers often appear brave because they have a deep familiarity with the dangers of war—what's truly life-threatening and what's not. Their extensive experience allows them to stay calm in situations where others, out of ignorance or lack of understanding, may panic. Many of the "alarms" or threats in war (e.g., false signals, minor skirmishes) may not actually be as dangerous as they appear, so the seasoned soldiers, knowing this, can face these situations with confidence that looks like bravery to outsiders. However, this does not necessarily mean their courage is the pure or noble form Aristotle is discussing—it stems more from their expertise than from virtue.
"Again, their experience makes them most capable in attack and in defence, since they can use their arms and have the kind that are likely to be best both for attack and for defence; therefore they fight like armed men against unarmed or like trained athletes against amateurs; for in such contests too it is not the bravest men that fight best, but those who are strongest and have their bodies in the best condition."
Aristotle is pointing out that professional soldiers, due to their experience and specialized training, have a significant advantage in battle. Their knowledge of how to use weapons, coupled with access to the best tools for both attack and defense, makes them far more effective than those without similar expertise. He compares this to situations where armed fighters face unarmed ones or where trained athletes compete against amateurs. In such cases, it isn’t necessarily courage or bravery that leads to victory but rather superior strength, skill, and preparation. In essence, being good at war or competition often depends more on physical readiness and technical ability than on raw bravery.
"Professional soldiers turn cowards, however, when the danger puts too great a strain on them and they are inferior in numbers and equipment; for they are the first to fly, while citizen-forces die at their posts, as in fact happened at the temple of Hermes."
Aristotle is pointing out that professional soldiers, despite their training and experience, are more likely to flee when the situation becomes overwhelmingly dangerous—such as when they are outnumbered or poorly equipped. This is because their initial willingness to fight often rests on the assumption of having the upper hand in strength or resources. When that assumption is shattered, their priority shifts to self-preservation, making them the first to abandon the fight.
In contrast, citizen-soldiers, who lack professional training, are more steadfast and willing to die at their posts. This is because, for them, retreating is seen as deeply shameful (disgrace is worse than death in their value system). Aristotle even references a specific event, the stand at the temple of Hermes, to illustrate how citizen-forces upheld their honor by staying to fight despite the odds, emphasizing their commitment to nobility over survival.
The takeaway here is that true courage, in Aristotle's view, does not depend on confidence rooted in favorable conditions but is marked by a deeper commitment to doing what is honorable, even in the face of grave danger.
"For to the latter flight is disgraceful and death is preferable to safety on those terms; while the former from the very beginning faced the danger on the assumption that they were stronger, and when they know the facts they fly, fearing death more than disgrace; but the brave man is not that sort of person."
Aristotle is contrasting two types of soldiers to explain what true bravery is. On the one hand, there are the citizen-soldiers, who see fleeing from battle as disgraceful and would rather choose death than live in dishonor. On the other hand, professional soldiers—those who fight as a job rather than out of a deep sense of moral obligation—approach danger differently. From the start, these professionals engage in battle with the assumption that they hold the advantage in strength or equipment. However, if the tide turns and they realize they are outmatched, their fear of death outweighs any sense of shame, and they are the first to run away.
Aristotle is emphasizing that true bravery doesn't come from a calculation of advantage or a fear-based response to danger. A genuinely brave person values noble and honorable actions more than personal safety. They don’t flee when the situation worsens, because their guiding principle is the pursuit of what is good and virtuous, not fear of death or reliance on superior strength.