Book 3 / Chapter 4
Paragraph 2 - The Object of Wish and Perception of Goodness
Explanation - Part By Part
"If these consequences are unpleasing, are we to say that absolutely and in truth the good is the object of wish, but for each person the apparent good; that that which is in truth an object of wish is an object of wish to the good man, while any chance thing may be so the bad man?"
This part is exploring an important distinction: the difference between what is truly good and what appears good to different people. Aristotle is saying that if the earlier conclusions seem troubling—such as the idea that people sometimes wish for things that are not actually good—then we might instead conclude the following:
1. In an absolute and true sense, the "good" is what everyone inherently aims or wishes for. In other words, the ultimate object of desire is the true good.
2. However, what people perceive as good varies. For each individual, their "object of wish" often depends on what appears good to them, even if that perception is flawed.
Aristotle makes the crucial observation here that good people—those with virtue and a well-formed character—tend to correctly identify and wish for what is truly good. On the other hand, bad people, whose judgments and desires are distorted by their flawed character, might wish for random or harmful things that merely seem good to them but aren't truly so.
In essence, what we desire is filtered through who we are. Virtuous individuals are more in touch with the truth of what is good, while those who lack virtue may confuse other things (e.g., greed, power, or pleasure) for the good.
"As in the case of bodies also the things that are in truth wholesome are wholesome for bodies which are in good condition, while for those that are diseased other things are wholesome- or bitter or sweet or hot or heavy, and so on."
Aristotle is drawing a comparison here between the health of a body and the desires or wishes of a person. For a body that is in good health, certain things are truly beneficial or "wholesome," like nutritious food or exercise. However, for a body that is unwell or diseased, what seems beneficial could be entirely different—sometimes things that are unnatural, unpleasant, or even harmful under normal circumstances may appear helpful for a sick body (e.g., strong medicine that tastes bitter).
He uses this analogy to explain how people's desires can depend on the "state" of their character. Just as a healthy or diseased body perceives different things as beneficial, a morally good person and a morally flawed person will have different ideas about what is "good." The good person can recognize true goodness, while the flawed or "diseased" person may mistake something harmful or superficial for goodness.
"Since the good man judges each class of things rightly, and in each the truth appears to him?"
This part is emphasizing that a person of good moral character (a "good man") has the ability to judge things correctly in different areas of life, and because of this, they see the truth of things. Aristotle is pointing out that moral virtue and wisdom help a person recognize what is truly good, rather than being misled by appearances or subjective preferences. Essentially, the "good man" becomes a reliable standard, or measure, for understanding what is genuinely good or right because their judgment aligns with truth and reason.
"For each state of character has its own ideas of the noble and the pleasant, and perhaps the good man differs from others most by seeing the truth in each class of things, being as it were the norm and measure of them."
Aristotle is making a key point here: a person's character shapes their perception of what is "noble" (virtuous or morally excellent) and "pleasant." Each person, depending on their moral state, has their own definition or standard of what is valuable or desirable in life.
However, a good or virtuous person—one with strong moral character—has a special quality: they perceive the truth more clearly across different areas of life. This person doesn't just follow subjective feelings or flawed judgments; instead, they serve as a kind of "standard" or "measure" for understanding what is genuinely good or worthwhile. In other words, the good person sees things as they truly are, not distorted by biases, desires, or misconceptions, and this ability makes them fundamentally different (and better) than others in moral judgment.
"In most things the error seems to be due to pleasure; for it appears a good when it is not. We therefore choose the pleasant as a good, and avoid pain as an evil."
Aristotle is commenting here on how people often make mistakes in judgment because they equate pleasure with what is good. Pleasure seems like a good thing, but appearances can be misleading. Because of this false perception, many people are naturally drawn to pleasurable things, believing them to be inherently good, while avoiding painful things, assuming they are evil. This tendency can lead to flawed decisions, as the pursuit of pleasure isn’t always aligned with what is truly good or virtuous. Essentially, pleasure can cloud our judgment, steering us away from deeper truths about what is truly beneficial or detrimental.