Book 2 / Chapter 8
Paragraph 3 - Opposition to Virtue: Deficiency vs. Excess
Explanation - Part By Part
"To the mean in some cases the deficiency, in some the excess is more opposed; e.g. it is not rashness, which is an excess, but cowardice, which is a deficiency, that is more opposed to courage, and not insensibility, which is a deficiency, but self-indulgence, which is an excess, that is more opposed to temperance."
Aristotle is explaining that when you look at virtues (the "mean" or balanced way of acting between two extremes), sometimes it's closer to one extreme than the other. In certain cases, the quality or behavior that falls short (deficiency) is more opposite to the virtue, while other times it's the one that goes too far (excess).
For example, when it comes to courage, Aristotle argues that cowardice (falling short of courage) is more opposite to it than rashness (overdoing bravery). Similarly, for temperance (self-control over pleasures), self-indulgence (chasing too much pleasure) is more opposite to temperance than insensibility (avoiding pleasure altogether).
"This happens from two reasons, one being drawn from the thing itself; for because one extreme is nearer and liker to the intermediate, we oppose not this but rather its contrary to the intermediate. E.g. since rashness is thought liker and nearer to courage, and cowardice more unlike, we oppose rather the latter to courage; for things that are further from the intermediate are thought more contrary to it."
Aristotle is saying that when we compare the extremes (too much or too little) to the "mean" (the balanced or virtuous state), we naturally think the extreme that is most different from the mean is its true opposite. For example, take courage, which is the virtuous "mean" between rashness (excessive boldness) and cowardice (a lack of courage). Rashness is actually closer in nature to courage because both involve taking action in the face of danger—just in different ways. Cowardice, on the other hand, is the extreme that's much further from courage because it involves failing to act out of fear. This is why we tend to think of cowardice as the strongest opposition to courage.
Essentially, we judge things based on their degree of difference from the balanced middle point, and we label the most distant extreme as the "more contrary."
"This, then, is one cause, drawn from the thing itself; another is drawn from ourselves; for the things to which we ourselves more naturally tend seem more contrary to the intermediate."
Aristotle is saying that there are two main reasons why one extreme of behavior or character might seem more opposed to the "mean" (the virtuous middle ground) than the other extreme. The first reason comes from the nature of the extremes themselves—how similar or different they are to the mean. The second reason, which he explains here, comes from human nature: we are naturally drawn toward certain tendencies, which makes those tendencies feel more opposed to virtue. For example, people are often more inclined to overindulge in pleasures than to completely avoid them, so self-indulgence (excess) feels like a bigger threat to temperance (moderation) than insensibility (deficiency). This reflects how our own inclinations shape our understanding of what conflicts most with virtue.
"For instance, we ourselves tend more naturally to pleasures, and hence are more easily carried away towards self-indulgence than towards propriety."
Aristotle is pointing out something fundamental about human nature: we are naturally drawn toward pleasure. Because of this inclination, it’s often easier for us to go overboard and become self-indulgent (seeking excessive pleasure) than to maintain balance and self-control (what he calls temperance). Essentially, our natural tendency to chase after pleasurable things makes it harder to stay on the middle path of moderation.
"We describe as contrary to the mean, then, rather the directions in which we more often go to great lengths; and therefore self-indulgence, which is an excess, is the more contrary to temperance."
Aristotle is highlighting here that, when we think about what is most opposed to the "mean" (the balanced, virtuous middle ground), we often consider the direction where we, as humans, are more likely to go overboard. In other words, we tend to see the extreme we're most prone to as the one that's most contrary to virtue. For example, in the case of temperance (self-control), people are generally more drawn toward indulgence—giving in too much to pleasures—than to total insensitivity to pleasure. Because of this, self-indulgence, as an excess, feels more opposed to temperance than insensibility, which is a deficiency. Aristotle points out that our natural tendencies shape how we define what seems "most opposite" to virtue.